Damodar Prasad Pradhan, Vikramshil Mahavihar, Simhakalpanagar, Nepal Mandal
Currently residing in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada
Jatak Tales: Historical Background – Folktales
When we study Jatak, the stories of the Buddha’s former birth, we are able to get a clear picture of the society, religious belief, politics, economic status including business and information related to all aspects of the study of development of the society during the period of Lord Buddha. Jatak is not only a collection of ancient tales and fables, but is also a highly praised literature by both the sects of Buddhist followers: Sthavirbad (Hinyan) and Mahayan as well as a higher status in the World Literature. The early versions of the teachings of Buddha were not written documents, but orally preserved which were merely committed to memory and recited by the monks of the saffron robe.
One hundred years after the Mahaparinirvan of Goutam Buddha, there occurred a religious conflict between the different groups of Buddhist teachers; so they assembled and held a big conference in Vaishali. The date of the conference, which is directly linked to Buddhism, is not yet clear; but according to some scholars, it is believed to have been held on or before 250 B.C. 1. A resolution got passed related to the different aspects of discipline within the members of the Buddhist community along with the 550 previous birth stories of Lord Buddha, the Jatak Tales.
Jatak, the story of the previous birth of the Buddha, is the oldest, most complete and most important collection of folklores which contains a record of the everyday life and everyday thoughts of the people. (The Commentarial Introduction entitled Nidan Katha --- The Story of the Lineage, Translated from the Pali Text by Prof. V. Fausboll). The Jataks so constituted were carried to Ceylon in the Pali language, when Buddhism was first introduced into that island of South Asia (a date that remains quite uncertain, but may be taken provisionally as about 250 B.C.); and the whole tales were translated into the Ceylonese language. The Jatak Atthavannand (547 tales) belonging to the third or fourth century B.C. is retold into its present form in Ceylon in the fifth century A.D. in the Pali text and was edited by Prof. Fausboll of Copenhagen in 1877-96. The Jatakakatthavanan written in Pali is believed to be the oldest form of Jatak tales, 2. It has been translated into English language by Edward Cowell (Cambridge 1895-1907). A Jatak book is also found in the Anguttara Nikdya and in the Saddharma Pundarika. The memoirs of Fah-hian (Faxian 399-414 A.D., the famous Chinese traveler, who visited Abhayagiri in Ceylon (412 A.D.), recorded 500 representations of the Bodhisattwa in successive births. The 547 Jataks do not include the Mahagovind Jatak, which is mentioned in several early texts such as the Nidan Katha and the Jatak Katha. Similarly, some stories are repeated with the same name or with another; thus, the number of Jatak stories could also be more or a little less.
Even though Buddha was born in Nepal as a Crown Prince, the main credit goes to Emperor Ashok the Great for propagating Buddhism far and wide. He did send his brother, son, daughter and disciples everywhere to spread the Buddhist teachings. Mahindra, the son of Ashok (in some text he is called on as the brother of Ashok), is believed to have collected 550 Jatak stories in Pali. 3. (The twenty-two Nipitaks which were composed by the time of the Council of Patna held in about 250 B.C.).
Professor V. Fausboll did collect the Pali Jatak and published it in 1887 A.D. which drew a top interest on this subject matter.
This short article is mainly based upon Valahassa Jatak, the story of the rescue of a group of five hundred enterprising merchants from the clutch of female ogresses by a flying white horse identified as Lord Avalokiteshwor. This story is related to the Simhalasarthabaha shrine in Vikramshil Mahavihar in Thamel, the main tourist hub in Kathmandu, Nepal today.
Gunakarandavyuha Sutra or Arya Avalokiteswora Gunakarandavyuha Sutra, is the earliest religious text related to the story of Simhala Sartha Baha. In the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyuha Sutra, the story of Simhala Sartha Baha is rather mentioned as Simhalasarthabahoddaran – Prakaran. 4
The Ashwaraja Story relates to the adventures of a caravan of commercial travelers shipwrecked on an island of demons and rescued by a flying horse, Ashwaraja, 'The King of the Horses.'
In all Jataks from India, Ceylon, Tibet, China, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, the story of the rescue of the five hundred merchants from the captivity of Rakshasi by the White Flying Horse, as the divine Avalokiteshwor, is mentioned well and the story ends with the only member, the leader, able to get back home safe and sound leaving behind all the other members under the merciless captivity of the Rakshasis; but nothing is mentioned about the Leader of the Legendary Caravan at all.
The story of the Flying White Horse is illustrated on the bas-reliefs of the temple of Borobudur in Java (Leemans, Borobudur, page 389, Leide, 1874) and on one side of a pillar in a Buddhist railing at Mathura. It is a flying horse with many people clinging to it (Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian Museum, page 189).
The story of the horse Balaha was immortalized in stone at the Angkor monument of Neak Pean in Kampuchea during the 12th century CE. (See Khmer Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65)
One painting from Ajanta Cave shows the pastimes of Prince Simhala’s journey to Ceylon. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an island on which ogresses appear as beautiful damsels, but who devour their victims during hours nocturnal. The prince luckily makes an escape on a flying horse, then later returns to the island and conquers it to establish Buddhism. (Behl, Benoy K: The Ajanta Caves).
The famous Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited India in the seventh century A. D. and stayed here for fifteen consecutive years (629-645 A.D.). He however did not mention about the Ajanta Cave. In 1819, the British officers of the Madras Army made a discovery of this magnificent site. They named it Ajanta after the name of the nearest village. After a gap of twenty five years, James Fergusson presented a research paper at the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1843, highlighting its importance in terms of Buddhism. This is the first scholarly study of the site which drew any global attention. (Jamkhedkar, Ajanta: Monumental Legacy)
The Pali Jataks, Divyavadana (heavenly stories) and the sixteenth-century Sanskrit text Gunakdrandavyuha narrates the story of Avalokiteshwor as The Flying White Horse to help rescue the five hundred merchants from the captivity of the Raksasis - the Valahassa Jatak. The horse is represented as an incarnation of Avalokiteshwor in the Karandavyuha Sutra. The flying white horse is called Balaha in the Jatak, the stories of Buddha’s previous life. Simhsarthabahu is mentioned as one of the previous lives of Buddha in the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha.
In one of the Jatak Stories, the name of the leader of the group of merchants is mentioned as Simhala, who was the only member being able to get back to the other shore. (The Jatak Stories of the Buddha's Former Births -The Goblin City page 164/165, edited by E. B. Cowell, vol. 1 - 3. published in 1895-1907). The Ashwaraja story relates to the adventures of a caravan of merchants shipwrecked on an island of demons and rescued by a flying horse, the Ashwaraja, the ‘King of Horses.’ The Simhala story continues this narrative to include the chief merchant, Simhala, being followed home by the leader demon, who tries to get him back before seducing and eating the king. Simhala is crowned monarch and again invades the island. Referring to “The Valahassa Jatak”, some of the different sources are related to the legendary story of the Avalokiteshwor helping rescue the group of five hundred merchants from the cannibalistic demons (man eating Rakshasis - the she-goblins).
There are some manuscripts in the collection of archives and museums related to the story of the rescue of the 500 merchants by Avalokiteshwor as a flying white horse; but some even do not mention the name of the group of merchants as well as where were they from, etc. In some of the manuscripts, it is clearly mentioned the name of the leader as Simhala Sharthavaha from Simhakalpanagar and the land of ogresses as Tamradwip. 5
1) The first dated record of the story of Simhala includes the Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Record of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang (629 AD), translated from the Original Chinese by Samuel Beal. (Volume II Book XI, published in 1884: 241-246)
Legend of Simha: Sang-kia-lo (Simhala)
Simhala (Sang-kia-la) the son of Sinha (Sang-kia) from Jambudwip (South Asia) went on a sea voyage with a group of 500 merchants, driven by the winds and waves, came to Ratnadwip the Land of Rakshasi Women.
2) Eugene Burnouf (1801- 1852 A.D.) in his book entitled “Introduction to the History of Indian Buddhism” (in French Language) eventually published in 1845 A.D. also mentions the story of Simhala (Second Memorandum, Section Two: Sutras or Discourse of Shakya: 236, 237 The Story of Simhala) Translated into English by Katia Buffetrille and Donald S. Lopez Jr. 2010 A.D.
Simhala, son of a merchant Simha who having embarked in search of precious stones on a remote island, is assailed as he approached Tamradwip, the abode of Rakshasis. The butter fed lamp warns him being in the dreadful hand of Rakshasis. Simhala then makes an escape from the island riding on a marvelous horse. The Rakshasis from whose hand Simhala just escaped seduces king Simhakesarin and with the help of other demons whom she calls from Tamradwip, devours the king and the family. Simhal is then proclaimed the king.
3) Samuel Beal in his book “The Romantic Legend of Shakya Buddha” from the original Chinese version of Ahbinishkraman Sutra) Chapter XLIX mentions the story of the Five Hundred Merchants. (1875: 332-340)
4) Daniel Wright (1877: 86, 87), did mention the name of the leader as Simhal Sarthavaha, son of Simhaka from Simhakalpanagar with a group of five hundred merchants ventured to Ceylon. 6
5) The Divyâvadâna: “A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends”, Sanskrit text in transcription, edited by Cowell, E. B. and Neil, R. A. from the Nepalese manuscripts in Cambridge and Paris published in 1886 bears a detail story of the five hundred merchants being rescued from the wrathful hands of female ogresses. Devnagari edition by P. L. Vaidya 1959. 7. (The Story of Simhal; Chapter XXXVI, page 523-531)
Brian Hodgson, the British Resident (1820-1840 A.D.) did collect the vivid materials of archeological importance from Kathmandu including the scroll paintings and manuscripts which are now in the possession of different authentic museums. 7a
Folklore
According to the folklore and the old belief, Simhala Sarthavaha is trusted to have visited Lhasa; but after diligently studying the different manuscripts as well as the long scroll paintings, we are to believe he did visit Ceylon instead of Lhasa. During the holy month Gunla, the ninth month according to the lunar calendar, all Buddhist monasteries in and around Kathmandu Valley used to demonstrate antiques and valuable items belonging to the monasteries. They are displayed for public viewing. During this period, a long scroll painting narrating the story of Simhala Sharthavaha is also displayed in the court-yard of Thambahi. The ancient scroll painting painted more than 250 years ago was stolen (now stocked in the German Museum). So a new painting made some 80 years ago is displayed. In this painting, Lhasa is mentioned along with the River Brahmaputra instead of Ratnakar and Tamradwip.
Siegfried Lienhard published a book in the German Language with the relevant details of the story as mentioned in the ancient painting in the collection of the German Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin: Die Abenteur des Kaufmanns Simhala; Siegfried Lienhard Museum fur Indische Kunst Berlin 1985: 73, 82 (The Adventures of the Merchant Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin 1985: 67, 73, 74, 82) 8
This ancient scroll painting measures 11.4 meters long and 0.55 meters wide, has 80 sections of paintings with an interesting story underneath each section. This lengthy scroll painting (Wilampau) narrating the story of Simhala Sarthavaha is being donated by the elderly person (Chief) Harsha Thaku for the benefit of all the living beings; but nothing is mentioned about when and who did the painting, nor any reliable information related to the elderly person Harsha Thaku.
Simhala, son of Simhaka from Simhakalpanagar went on a sea voyage in search of valuable gems and precious stones. While crossing the Ratnakar Ocean, they encountered a great storm and their ship got sunk into the ocean but were able to get to land in the cost of Tamradwip where they encountered with the female Yakshas, who were all dressed up like pretty young ladies. Finally they were rescued by Avalokiteshwor as a flying white horse.
According to Mr. Lienhard, Simhala Sarthavaha did visit Tamradwip but not Lhasa.9
(The scroll being very old has a lot of damages and in many places; thus it is difficult to read so has … … as a remark)
The leader of the group of businessmen are given the title Sharthavaha; so Simhal being selected as the leader of the group of five merchants got a new name Simhala Sharthavaha (Simhala the leader) 10
A long sea voyage leads to Tamradwip (Ceylon) and while studying the ancient history of this country, we come across the Vedas and Yakshas and the traders used to pay a visit to this island in search of precious stones. 11
Journey of Bhikshu Dipankar Shrijana to Subarnadwip
During the early 11th Century Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Bali), Buddhism was in a climax and there used to live many renowned scholars. Thus Bhikshu Dipankar Shrijana went to study in Sumatra with a renowned Buddhist Scholar (Dharmaguru) named Dharmakirti. While traveling to Subarnadwip during the early 1012 A.D., he spent nearly 13 months in a boat belonging to the Nepalese traders. 12. We can thus conclude that the traders from Nepal used to travel up to Sumatra since more than 1,000 years in search of gold and precious stones.
While having journeyed in the ocean, Dipankar Shrijana instructed the Nepalese traders not to proceed towards Tamradwip (Ceylon) and small islands nearby as it is inhabited by the notorious cannibal Yaksha. 13. Simhala Sarthavaha and the 500 merchants also must have gone on a long distance trade as far as Suvarnadwip in search of gold, precious stones and valuable ornaments. Accidentally they got shipwrecked and landed at the coast of Tamradwip.
An old dugout boat belonging to the period of Vijay was found in the sea-shore of Ceylon in 1954 A.D. After fetching carbon dating it was established around 380-480 B.C., it has a strong evidence of ancient seafaring and merchants from Jambudwip used to set out on long distance commercial routes. 14
Bhikshu Dipankar Shrijana in Nepal
The Head Pandit of Nalanda University Bhikshu Dipankar Shrijana was invited to visit Tibet by the Tibetan king to revive and get a new direction for the Buddhist thoughts. On his way to Tibet, he spent a year (1041-42 AD/ 161-62 N.S.) in Nepal and most of his time was spent in Thambahi. 15. Dharmadhatu Bihar was named Vikramshil Mahavihar by the great Pandit Dipankar Shrijana; it is also known as the Simhalasarthabahu Bihar. 16.
During his stay in Thambahi, he is believed to have made a white chaitya in the inner courtyard and he authored a valuable book entitled “Charya Samgraha Pradeep.” 17. This White Stupa still exists inside the Vikramshil Mahavihar (Thambahi).
Dharmadhatu Vihar, Thambahi, Vikramshil Mahavihar
While studying some of the old inscriptions belonging to the Likshavi period, we find most of the Buddhist monasteries being built in an isolated place far from the city settlement which is judged suitable for fostering meditation and to concentrate the mind on and study the philosophy for the Buddhist scholars. In this connection, the old Dharmadhatu Vihar is believed to have been built in Sawabhumi. (Present Samakhushi) 18. The Vihar was located close to a narrow river Samakhushi which occasionally gets overflowed resulting in a colossal destruction to the Vihar. After the Vihar being badly destroyed by the flood, it is believed to have been shifted to the present place higher than the old location; so got a new name Thambahi, a Vihar located on a certain height.
Scholar Sarat Chandra did mention that Shrijana gave his elephant to the king of Nepal with a request to help build this Vihar.
Even though Dipankar Shrijana did spend a year in Thambahi, we cannot find any comprehensive description of the Dharmadhatu Vihar nor any valuable contents such as Satasahashrika Pragyaparamita (100,000 verses) manuscript written in real gold ink.
After the Muslim invasion in 1197 A.D., Nalanda University, along with numerous other schools of Buddhist thoughts and vihars, were savagely destroyed and the Buddhist followers were being punished. The Buddhist scholars went to the northern part of Jambudwip including Ladakh, Nepal and Sikkim. This is the period when Buddhism got flourished in northern Jambudwip. Thambahi was one of the renowned Vihars where many scholars from different countries frequented to come and study Sanskrit and the Buddhist Philosophy. Bhikshyu Dharmashree, a renowned Buddhist Scholar from Bikramshil Vihar, Nalanda is believed to have visited Thambahi to concentrate on the Buddhist Philosophy. 19. He is believed to have given a new name Vikram Shila Mahavihar to this Mahayan monastery. 20.
Itumbaha and Keshchandra Aaju
The founder of Kathmandu Valley, Amshu Varma’s 15th great-grandson Jay Kam Dev, having no issue, the Likshavi dynasty in event got extended and a new Thakuri Dynasty came into power with its founder as Bhaskar Dev. The stone inscription in Itumbaha mentions that this Vihar was installed (insisted) by Bhaskar Dev and historically renovated by Kesh Chandra.
A long scroll painting narrating the story of Kesh Chandra used to be displayed in Itumbaha during the holy month of Gunla (the eighth month according to the Lunar Calendar). In this scroll painting, it is mentioned that Kesh Chandra visited Thambahi to meet his sister and the brother-in-law Simhala Sarthavaha. This strongly indicates that Kesh Chandra and Simhala Sharthavaha are contemporary and belong to a period after Dipankar Shrijana because Bhaskar Dev (1045 A.D.-1047 A.D.) was the king during his visit in Nepal (1040 A.D.-1041 A.D.) and Kesh Chandra renovated the temple Itumbaha made by Bhaskar Dev.
The story is also very popular in some of the south Asian countries.
1) Valahassa Jataka in the Japanese Literature
The Valahassa Jataka, as it is known in Pali, was transmitted across Asia from India to Japan --- the Great Land of the Rising Sun. A Japanese scroll painting belonging to the 13th century illustrating the Valahassa Jataka remains in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts. The tale is known as Kannon-kyo (Kannon Sutra) in Japanese literature. In the tale, the name of the island and the city of cannibalistic demons is virtually mentioned as Ceylon. However, the name of the country, the names of the five hundred merchants and the name of the leader are not mentioned. In this tale, the five hundred merchants are called on as the disciples of Shakyamuni and the white flying horse as Bodhisattwa. (The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valahassa Jataka Imagery from India to Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 43 n. 1-2 1981, page 111- 128)
2) The Valahassa Jataka – Indonesian Version
Once upon a time, there was on the island of Ceylon a goblin town called Sirisavatthu, the home of she-goblins. We find the story of a group of five hundred shipwrecked traders being rescued by five hundred she-goblins disguised as pretty nice looking young ladies. The principal of the traders keenly got the notice of the ladies as man-eater goblins; so he did request all members to flee from the city (Ceylon) as soon as possible. Two hundred fifty members followed the chief and they were being helped by the White Flying Horse to cross the ocean. This is how the Jataka story ends with the rescue aid extended to the group of merchants by the Flying White Horse Balaha as one of the Buddha’s previous lives. The same story is repeated by E. J. Thomas in his book Jataka Tales (No. 196, “The Goblin City” page 164166 published by Cambridge University Press in 1916 A.D. and in “The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha, Valahassa Jatak-196” by C.B. Varma)
3) The Valahassa Jataka – The Tibetan Version
In the history of Tibet called Rgyalrabs-gsal-vai-me-lon (the mirror illustrating the lineage of the kings), Valahassa Jataka is mentioned in the sixth chapter. This was composed in the early 17th century with the narrative description of the animistic life in Tibet from an ape and a rakshasi and the description of the linage of the ruling king ending Sronbtsan-sgam-po and the further history of the country to the time of the writer. (“A Jatak Tale from the Tibetans” by H. Wenzel - pp. 503 -511; published in 1888 A.D.). Singhala is mentioned as the name of the island and the groups of five hundred merchants from India were being rescued from the Rakshasis by Lord Avalokiteshwor in the form of a flying horse Balaha.
4) Valahassa Jatakaya (The Birth Story of the Flying Horse) from Pali (Ceylon)
Ceylon is believed to have been very popular since long for the Iron and copper deposits; so the nomenclature of Tambapanni is given to this island. This island is also known by the name Ratnadweep as it was also popular for the invaluable gems found here. The Sanskrit term Sinhala bears a significance of “BARK”, Cassia bark (‘cinnamomum cassia’), which is also used as a substitute for cinnamon (cinnamomum verum also called ‘cinnamomum zeylanica’) which is very native to Ceylon. It is believed that merchants from the West Indian coast sail in small and big boats to this island since time immemorial in search of the precious stones (gems), copper, iron and cinnamon. It is also believed that the first king Vijay arrived here on a boat after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvan on 543 B.C. In 1952 A.D. a large and well-made dugout boat was found in Kelanimulla, Kelaniya belonging to 380-480 B.C. and is kept in the Colombo Museum. (That has been radio carbon dated to 2300 B.P. ± 100, which is 380 – 480 B.C. “Our History: Myth upon Myth, Legend upon Legend”, Sunday Times, October 17, Sunday 2010, Colombo, Ceylon).
The story of the rescue of the five hundred merchants by the Divine Lord Avalokiteshwar is mentioned in the Pali Literature of Ceylon.
5) A Jataka Tale (Dukanipata: No. 196)
Translated from the Pali Literature (Valahassa Jataka)
The islands of Tambannidípa and Sirísavatthu are mentioned as a Yakkha city, peopled by Yakkhinís indulged in cannibalism. The savages were accustomed to savor human flesh. Avalokiteshwar, the Divine Lord, is believed to rescue the group of five hundred merchants in the form of a White Flying Horse. (The Jataka, Vol. II: Book II, translated from Pali. by W.H.D. Rouse, 1895 A.D., No. 196 Valahassa Jataka Page- 9092). The same story is mentioned in “Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha” by C. B. Varma and “A Jataka Tale from Tibet” by H. Wenzel (The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland pp. 503--511)
6) Goblin City (The Flying White Horse: Stories of the Buddha's Previous Births)
Ceylon is mentioned as the Goblin City and the leader of the group of merchants is mentioned as Simhala who was the only member able to get back safely to the other shore (The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E. B. Cowell, Volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907 A.D. under the title - The Goblin City page 164/166)
7) The Jataka Story from Ajanta Cave No. 17holds the largest number of paintings and murals than any of the other natural caves. The mural paintings in Cave No. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention the story of Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteshwar, helping the group of merchants from the Rakshisis. Among the finest are a vast panel depicting Simhala’s shipwreck and encounters that took place with a man-eating ogress (“Simhala Avadana”). (The Cave Temples of India by James Fergusson and James Burgess 1895 A.D., and Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India, Pushpesh Pant). The Ajanta caves are dated from the beginning of the Christian era, or earlier to the seventh century.
8) Hiuen Tsang’s Version of Simhala Avadana
It relates a story of the colonization of this country which is called “Ratnadweep”, as it is in Hiuen Tsang’s version - by “Sinhala”, the Son of Simha, and a Merchant Prince who comes with 500 merchants in quest of precious gems. He comes here and meets a group of beautiful women who live in an iron city called Sirisavatthu. They are, in fact, cannibalistic Yakkhinis who can change their forms and they often prey on shipwrecked sailors and merchants. Sinhala’s vessel is wrecked and he is saved by the Yakkhinis who present themselves as the widows of the other merchants who have sailed on the trading missions years numerous ago and are “presumed dead.” Simhala believes the story and ‘marries’ the chief Yakkhini, but later finds out who they are in fact and managed to escape with two hundred and fifty of his men who believed him, with the help of a magical flying horse. His ‘wife’ follows him to his kingdom and presents herself, as the woman wronged by his son, to Simha’s father. He believes her and gives her the required shelter. For his pains, she devours him and his whole household that night; then returns to Ratnadweep, where she kills and eats the 250 remaining men who had not heeded Simha’s honest call. Simhala succeeds his father as the monarch and invades Ratnadweep by sea then, bringing an army complete with war elephants, by ship.
9) Simhalasarthabahu Avadana
Professor Todd T. Lewis of the College of Holy Cross in Massachusetts, U.S.A. also published a research paper on the localization of Simhalasarthabahu Avadana. It did mention Simha Sartha Bahu as the leader of the five hundred merchants in the Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu Avadana. (Chicago Journal- History of Religion, Volume 33 No. 2, November 1993 A.D., page 135-160) In Simhala Avadana. It is also mentioned about the birth of a son named Simhala to a wealthy merchant Simhaka, during the period of king Simhakeshari from Simhakalpa. Simhala was selected as the leader of the troupe of five hundred merchants who were on a sea-voyage. The abode of rakshasis is mentioned as Tamradwip and Simhala was able to escape from the island on a magic white horse leaving behind all other members under the merciless captivity of the Rakshasis. In “The Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives & Rituals in a Newar Merchant Community” (Columbia University: Ph.D. Dissertation, 1984 A.D.), Todd T. Lewis mentioned the name of the leader of the group of the merchants leading to Lhasa as Simhala Sartha Bahu, son of the Merchant Simhalasartha Baha from the town of Simhakalpa in Jambudwip. Professor Todd T. Lewis in his article published in the “Journal of Religion” mentions about a stupa in Lhasa known as Simsharthabahu Chorten and a shrine in Jokhang dedicated to his wife that Newar traders honor her as the divine form of Jatika Ajima (Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu Avadan – source: “History of Religions”, Vol. 33 No. 2, Page 150, published by the University of Chicago, Press 1993).
The Adventures of the Merchant Simhala is also mentioned by Professor Siegfried Lienhard with a description of a long Scroll Painting 11.44 meters long and 0.55 meters wide with 80 frames each with the legend/story of Simha Sartha Bahu (Text in Nepali scripts and the language Newari) from the collection of the Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin. Professor Siegfried Lienhard also did mention about this special Scroll Painting in his research paper “A Nepalese Painted Scroll Illustrating the Simhalavadan” (Nepalica 4 Sankt 49-53 Editors Prof. N. Gulschow and A. Michaels - Sankt. Augustine Wissenschaflaverlage VGH, p 51-53). Published in the “Heritage of Kathmandu Valley”, proceedings of an International Conference in Lubec, June 1985 A.D.).
Simhala (Simhala Sartha Baha) was the name of the legendary founder and the first king of the island. (“Buddhism in Tibet” by Schlagintweit Emil Leipzig, London 1863). The Sanskrit version of the Simhala tale is mentioned in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found in Y. Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967 pp. 247-94, A.K. Ramanujan, "Who Needs Folklore? The Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies”, South Asia Occasional Papers (University of Hawaii Vol. 1, 1990 A.D.).
The Legendary Story of the Lhasa Caravan
A copy of wall hanging (Poubha, Wilampau, Thangka painting, Scroll painting) narrating the story of the legendary caravan to Lhasa is being displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal (Ward No. 29) during the festival of the holy month of Gunlaa, the ninth month according to the Nepalese Lunar Calendar against the Solar Calendar. It keenly describes the legendary story of the Lhasa Voyage, being led by Simhala Sartha Baha. Simha Sartha Baha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal (Ward No. 29) and the entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by the Pradhan family from Thamel, who believe themselves as the descendants of Simhala Sartha Baha. According to the legend (a non-historical or unverified story), a group of five hundred young businessmen left for a caravan to Lhasa beyond the Great Himalayan Ranges. The group did select Simhala, a merchant with rich knowledge, as their trustworthy leader. Being selected as the leader of the group of commercial travelers, he obtained the new nomenclature of Simhala Sarthabaha. (Sarthabaha meaning the leading head of the group of merchants). While crossing the River Brahmaputra, the commercial travelers encountered an accident and were being rescued by five hundred young and exceptionally beautiful ladies. All members of the caravan were busy conducting business and enjoying with the young ladies as their wives; so they did not think of returning back home at all. Simhala Sartha Bahu used to worship the family God Avalokiteshwar (Karunamaya) daily. One day Simha Sartha Baha was given the divine sight of Lord Avalokiteshwar (Karunamaya) while in meditation and worship. In the night dream, Lord Avalokiteshwar warned him that they are being held under the captivity of the she-devils (the man-eaters) and told him to leave the city as soon as possible as it is a bewitched country. He was instructed to go to the northern side of the city to check a big compound surrounded by tall walls like a well, where they used to throw the human skeletons after devouring the flesh. Avalokiteshwar also did promise to help them cross the river as a Flying White Horse. He went there and was able to climb a tree, and saw the dumping site with lots of human skeletons behind the tall wall, where they were forbidden to visit by all means. He got convinced himself about the dream after visiting the northern side of the city. He made the imminent plan of making an escape from the evil eyes of the damsels whom they mistakenly thought of their beloved spouses. He was able to get his friends convinced about the instruction of the divine Lord and made a plan to leave the bewitched land at the quickest. They left their home in the middle of the night when their wives were fast asleep and came close to the River Brahmaputra. Simhal Sartha Baha did worship the divine Lord and a Flying White Horse appeared immediately. The horse instructed all of them to get a ride and warned them not to look behind while crossing the big river but to enchant the holy Tri-Ratna Mantra. While they were crossing the big river, all ladies woke up and could not find their young merchants sleeping next to them. They started flying over the big river laminating and requesting them to return back home. Hearing the kind hearted voices of their wives (the she-devils), all members except Simhala Sartha Baha looked behind and were taken back to the other side of the big river. Simhala Sartha Baha was the only person who faithfully did not look behind and did not forget to enchant the Mantra of Tri-Ratna either; so was able to get back home leaving behind all his friends under the captivity of the wretched women. The chief devil, disguised as a young and exceptionally beautiful lady, followed Simhal Sartha Baha and came to the court with a baby on her lap claiming herself to be the wife of Simhsarthabahu. Simhsarthabahu did try to convince the king about the she-devil and denied to accept them as his wife and son respectively. The king then kept her in the palace as he was attracted with the exceptional beauty of the lady. In the middle of the night, she called all her companions and started killing the members of the Royal Family and the staff. The next day, the palace door did not open; so Simha Sartha Bahu suspiciously entered the palace climbing through a ladder. He was no more able to find anybody but the human skeletons scattered all over the palace court-yard. As all the Royal Family members along with the courtiers were killed and eaten by the she-devils, he did come across a bunch of human skeletons thrown around the palatial building and witnessed the she-devils being blessed with sound sleep around the court-yard. With the Divine Sword he is believed to have killed all the Dankinis except his wife who did beg pardon for her invaluable life. Simhala Sartha Baha was nominated as the leader of the community as all members of the Royal family were killed by the she-devils. This is how he got a new name Garud, literally meaning the Army Chief and later on was able to take the top post of the king and called Garudjuju. (Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047 V.E., Kathmandu Upatyaka ka Chirka Mirka Page 72).
Simhal Sartha Baha donated some land property and is believed to have established Thambahi in his home town. With the wealth he earned from Lhasa (the trans-Himalayan traders usually bring gold from Tibet), he was able to win victory over the bewitched country and was also able to introduce Buddhism there. Later on with his spiritual power and intellectual knowledge, he gained popularity as a form of Divine God – Dipankar Garud Bhagwan. His wife also is honored as a divine God Ajima, the protector Mother Goddess (Jatika Ajima). After being pardoned from her wicked life, she is being ordered to make a solemn vow to impose security over the entire community and in return she also made a decent proposal to protect the community lest there be no opening in the roof top of the buildings that existed all around. This is why even today the Pradhans from this particular locality do not expose open roof tops in their residences. She was then asked which portion of the boiled rice she preferred to have - the first, the middle or the last. She spoke to have the first one thinking herself as the senior; so this is how she got the sticky water (Jati). Even today the sticky water (Jati) is being poured to the image of Jatika Ajima, before reaching the rice bowl to Garud Bhagwan at the center of the monastery within the pious quadrangle. The main image of Bhagwan Bahal, which is known as Garudjuju or Garud Bhagwan, is believed to be the image of Simhalsarthbaha. Pradhans from Thambahi do not visit Lhasa at all because they believe themselves as the descendants of Simhal Sartha Baha and they are scared of being attacked by the she-devils as a mean revenge.
Simhala Avadana: The Story of the Horse-King and the Merchant Simhala in the Buddhist Texts, by Naomi Appleton.
Once upon a time, a wealthy merchant named Simhaka used to live in the capital city of Simhakalpa ruled by King Simha Keshari. When his wife gave birth to a handsome son, he named him Simhala. After finishing his education, he asked his father for the royal permission to wonder away on a sea voyage. Simhaka was afraid of losing his beloved son and was not willing to send him for the far away journey. Simhala left Simhakalpa in the company of five hundred merchants. They all took with them abundant merchandises and novelties. After visiting many places, they were able to sell all their goods and made huge profits. On their way back home, they reached a place called Tamradwip. This place was the abode of rakshasis. On seeing the merchants, all the rakshasis took the form of beautiful damsels and entertained them. Each rakshasi took one of his friends home, lured them, fed them, made love to them and they lived as husband and wife. When all his friends were thus drugged to sleep, the rakshasis devoured them. The rakshasi, entrusted with the task of devouring Simhala, fled when he took out his sword. Simhala then escaped from the island on a magic white horse.
From Tamradwip, Simhala arrived at Jambudwip. The rakshasi in the form of a very beautiful young lady still followed him all the way. She met a merchant from Madhya Desh. She promptly fell at his feet and said “I am the daughter of the king of Tamradwip and was married to Simhala. While crossing the ocean, the ship encountered an inevitable accident. He left me as he thought me to be inauspicious.” The merchant was impressed much by her verbal story and promised to help her. He blamed Simhala for not accepting the innocent girl. Simhala then told him that she was none other than a predator. From Jambudwip, Simhala returned to Simhakalpa; the female monster pursued him there as well. She came to the house of Simhala with a very handsome child, greatly resembling Simhala. She narrated Simhala's father the same old story. When Simhala came back home, his parents requested him to forgive his beloved wife. Simhala then revealed the true nature of the innocent young girl. After being denied by Simhala, the rakshasi went to the palace claiming her as the wife of Simhala and the infant child as his son. The king of Simhakalpa, Simha Keshari ordered Simhala to accept her as his wife. Simhala informed the king who she really was and requested him to expel her out of the entire city. But the king was attracted by her great beauty and kept her in the palace. During dinner, the rakshasi mixed sleeping doses to everyone including the king who was fast asleep. She then invited her rakshasi companions to come and join in the feast. She told them that they should stop claiming over Simhala instead of giving them one; she was giving them so many. The rakshasis entered the palace and started killing the king and his family members. In the morning next, the people saw the vultures roaming around the palace. Simhala entered the palace climbing through a ladder. Then he searched the entire palace but could find none of the royal family as all were murdered by the rakshasis. The ministers and the citizens decided to offer the crown to Simhala. The crown was then offered to Simhala who accepted it on the condition that the people would obey him without any question. On assuming the throne, he raised a powerful army and invaded Tamradwip. When king Simhala with his army marched upon Tamradwip, the rakshasis surrendered to him and agreed to leave the island. The island was then colonized by Simhala and was called Simhaldweepa after him.
A garland of gold to you the Listener!
A garland of flowers to you the story teller!
Now may these stories go to paradise!
And when it is time to retell them, come back immediately again!
This is the traditional way of closing the story telling in Nepal.
Reference Books: -
01) Buddhist Birth Stories; The Jatak Tales translated from the Pali Text, London 1880.
(Jatak Thavannana - The Oldest Collection of Jatak Folklores by V. Fausböll's, edited and translated into English by T.W. Rhys Davids)
02) Buddhist Birth Stories by T.W. Rhys Davids 1880, London (Mahindar)
03a) Buddhist Birth Stories by T.W. Rhys Davids 1880, London
03b) Tuladhar-Douglas, Will, 1998 Literary Sources of the Gunakarandavyuha "Presented at the Conference on the Buddhist Heritage of Nepal Mandal" held in November 1998 in Kathmandu
03c) The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal by Rajendra Lal Mitra, 1982: 95-97,
Gunakarandavyuha – SIMHALA (Chapter XXXV-VI)
No. B27; 171/2 x 5 ½, Folio 120, lines per page 8, Total Sloka 4,740 (Newari character) Date - ??
The Lord said, “In one of my previous existences, I was Sinhala, son of Sinha, a merchant from Simhakalpa.”
Sinhala led a nautical expedition. His vessel were overtaken by a storm and wrecked off the island called Tamradwip or Copper Island. By the grace of the Lord to whom Sinhala was very much devoted, the passengers safely reached the shore of Tamradwip. That island was inhabited by Rakshasis, who could assume any form they wish.
04) Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (Ed.) “Buddhism in Practice” – Introduction Chapter: 1995, 3–36.
Siegried Lienhard: Avalokiteshwar in the Wick of the Night Lamp; Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol.36, 1993: 93 (Gunakarandavyuha belongs to the late 16th Century).
05) Two undated manuscripts from Asha Achieves, Kathmandu related to the story of Simhalasarthavaha
a) Catalogue No. 5228 Simha Sharthavaha Avadan
b) Catalogue No. 5233 Buddha Avadan: - Simhasharthavaha
आशा सफूधुकु पञ्जिका ल्या ५२२८ सिंह शार्थ बाहा अवदान, ५२३३ बुद्धअवदान सिंहशार्थबाहा
05d) Sutrapitaka Mahayan Sutra Chapter 16. siṁhala sārthavāhoddhāraṇa prakaraṇam
05e) The Story of Simhala- Simhalavadan - A manuscript in the collection of Asiatic Society in Paris containing 337 leaves x 9 lines collected from Nepal by Hodgson 1837
6) 1883: 134-35. C. Bendall, Catalogue of the Buddhist Sanskrit Manuscripts in the University Library Cambridge. It is an illustration of this thematic statement that the story of a sea-faring merchant, the Sarthavaha Jataka, is related.
This is the second tale occurring on folios 14a-22a of the so-called Avadana-sarasamuccaya (Ms. Add. 1598) preserved in the Cambridge University Library.
7) Daniel Wright, “History of Nepal” 1877: 86, 87
During the reign of Sinha Ketu, a descendent of Gun Kam Dev, there was a virtuous merchant by name Sinhal. On a certain occasion, he took five hundred Bamyas and proceeded northwards (it ought to be southwards) Sinhal Dwip (Ceylon).
6a) The Divyāvadāna, a collection of early Buddhist legends: first edited from the Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript (MSS) in Cambridge and Paris, edited by Edward Byles Cowell and R. A. Neil - Cambridge University Press, 1886: 523), Devanagari edition by P. L. Vaidya 1959
(The Story of Simhal; Chapter XXXVI, page 523-531)
8) Brian Houghton Hodson in Nepal (The British Resident in Kathmandu 1824-1843) by David M. Waterhouse from “The Origins of Himalayan Studies” edited by David M. Waterhouse 2004 page 6 & 7
9) Siegfried Lienhard 1985 Die Abenteuer des Kaufmanns Siṃhala Eine nepalische Bilderrole dus der Sammlung des Museums ür Indische Kunst Berlin. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Indische Kunst Berlin (7)
“The Adventures of the Merchant Simhala”: A Nepalese role mode images of the collection of the Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin. Berlin Publications of the Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin (7)
“The Museum of East Asian Arts” and “The Museum of Indian Arts” were merged in December 2006 and now operate under a new joint name, The Museum of Asian Arts.
10) Die Abenteur des Kaufmanns Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum fur Indische Kunst Berlin 1985: 73, 82 (The adventure of the merchant Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum of Indian Art, Berlin 1985: 73, 82)
11) Die Abenteur des Kaufmanns Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum fur Indische Kunst Berlin 1985: 67, 74 (“The Adventures of the Merchant Simhala”, Siegfried Lienhard Museum of Indian Arts, Berlin 1985: 67, 74)
Todd T. Lewis has described how a popular Buddhist didactic story, the Simhala Sarthabahu Avadana, was domesticated by the Newars: 'a pan- Buddhist story of caravan merchants crossing the ocean was translated - linguistically... Himalayan Research Bulletin - Volume 22 - Page 39
12) Bhuvan Lal Pradhan, 2047: 72 – Some Cultural Identity of Kathmandu Valley (in Nepali Language) भुबन लाल प्रधान २०४७: ७२ - काठमाडौं उपत्यकाका केहि सांस्कृतिक छिर्कामिर्का
धन बज्र बज्राचार्य २०३०: ५२ - लिच्छबि कालिन अभिलेख, नेपाल एसियालि अध्ययन केन्द्र
Dhan Vajra Bajracharya, 2030: 52 – Archives Belonging to the Licchavi Period, Nepal and Asian Study Center
13) Buddhism in Practice 1995: 532 - 540 Donald S. Lopez Jr. (ed.) "Atisha's Journey to Sumatra", Hubert Declare.
"Atisha was able to visit Suvarnadwip (Sumatra) in a boat owned by the people from Nepal"
14) “Buddhism in Practice” 1995: 532 - 540 Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (Ed.); "Atisha's Journey to Sumatra" Hubert Declare.
Atisha instructed them not to visit Tamradwip and the neighboring small islands as it is inhabited by cannibals.
15) “Our History: Myth upon Myth, Legend upon Legend”, Sunday Times, October 17, Sunday 2010, Colombo, Ceylon.
At Kelanimulla ferry, in 1952 a large, very well made dugout boat, was found (now in the Colombo Museum) that has been radio carbon dated to 2300 BP ± 100, which is 380 – 480 B.C.: This makes it very close to the time of the first king Vijay’s arrival (on the date of the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvan on 543 B.C.).
16) Das, Sarad Chandra: “Indian Pandits in the Land of Snows” (Reprint 1965) Atisha in Thambahi page 75-77,
Atisha also is said to have established this Vihar constructing a white stupa and five small stupas in the north side of Kathmandu Valley (Panchmane) and did spend a year studying the Buddhist philosophical teaching.
Moreover, the King of Nepal caused his son to be ordained as a monk by Atisha under the name of Devendra. He also sent 100 horsemen with Atisha and the Prince to escort them up to the shores of the lake Mapham (Mansarovar). Atisha presented his own elephant to the king of Nepal with a request that he should build a Vihar, called Than Vihar, in return for the value of the beautiful elephant.
Atisha also is said to have established Vikramshil Mahavihar (the white Chaitya inside this vihar and the five chaityas in Panchamane, north of Kathmandu) and did spend a year studying the authentic Buddhist philosophy.
Declare, Hubert 1996. "Lord Atisha in Nepal: The Tham Bahil and the Five Stupas" Foundations according to the 'Brom Ston Itinerary" Journal of Nepal Research Center, Vol. X, pp. 27-54.
17) Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism: Todd T. Lewis (Relevant Translations in Collaboration with Subarna Man Tuladhar and Labh Ratna Tuladhar) 2000: 190
Harish Chandra Lal Singh: Brief Encyclopedia of Buddhism in Nepal 2006: 272
(Dharmadhatu Vihar was named Vikramshil Mahavihar by the great Pandit Dipankar Shrijana. It is also known as the Simhalasarthabahu Vihar. This white stupa is still existing inside the Vikramshil Mahavihar (Thambahi).
Snellgrove 2002: 377, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhist and Their Successors, Thambahi (Vikramshil Mahavihar founded by Atisha (1040)
18) Atisha Dipankar Shrijana: The Eye of Asia: Mr. Deba Priya Barua "While in Nepal, he composed Charya Samgra Pradip. This rather small book of only sixty-six stanzas (sloks) communicated in simple lucid language the basic principles and thoughts of Buddhism. In 1859 the German Scholar Koppen, highlighted Atisha with the relevant translation of Charya Sangrah Pradip and Bodhi Palha Pradip (66 Stanzas) written in Sanskrit by Atisha while he was in Nepal (1041 – 1042AD).
19) Bhuvan Lal Pradhan, 2047: 88 – Some Cultural Identity of Kathmandu Valley (In Nepali Language) भुबन लाल प्रधान २०४७: ८८ - काठमाडौं उपत्यकाका केहि सांस्कृतिक छिर्कामिर्का
20) Bajracharya, Purna Harsha 1979: 61-64 "Than Bahil: An Ancient Center for Sanskrit Study" Indologica Taurinesia, Vol. 7. The International Association of Sanskrit Studies.
21) Dharmashri Mitra, a renowned scholar from Vikramshil Vihar, Nalanda, India is believed to have visited Nepal for any advance study in Buddhism and Sanskrit in the early 13th Century. He did study in Thambahil, which clearly indicates the high importance of Thambahi and the similarity incurred of the nomenclature Vikramshil indicates the name might have been given by him. “Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley" by Wolfgang Korn, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1976 (Text by Purna Harsha Bajracharya).
Books Related to the Jataka Stories
1) Buddhist Birth-Stories: The Jataka Tales translated from Pali Text Jatakatthavannana –The Oldest Collection of Jataka Folklores by V. Fausböll's, Edited and Translated into English by T.W. Rhys, Davids 1880
02) A Jataka Tale from the Chinese Translation by Samuel Bell 1880
03) The Jataka Together with Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Goutam Buddha by Viggo Fousball, T. William Rhys Davidson; Turner, London 1877-1897
04) The Jataka or The Stories of the Buddha's Former Births in 6 Volumes by Professor Cowell, Edward Byles, (Valahassa Jataka) Pali Text Society, London 1895
05) Jataka Tales by Ellen C. Babbill and Ellsworth Young New 1912
06) Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas 1916
07) Buddhist Birth Stories (Jataka Tales) The commentary introduction entitled Nidan Katha, the story of the lineage by T. William Rhys Davidson, Caroline A.F.R. Davids. 1925
08) The Ocean of the Stream of Story by C. H. Tawney, “Translation of Katha Sarit Sagar” by Somdev
09) Jatakamala by J. S. Speyer
10) Jataka (Six Volumes) Translated by Bhadanta Ananda Kausalyayana.
11) The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma
12) The Jataka Story in Japan 1999 by Anita Khanna
13) Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Jataka Tales & Other Stories
source : https://www.facebook.com/notes/damodar-pradhan/the-story-of-simhala-sharthavaha-a-comparative-study/10155669564995132/
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